This publication was published more than 5 years ago. The state of knowledge may have changed.

Diagnosis and treatments for epilepsy

A systematic review and assessment of the medical, health economic, social and ethical aspects

Reading time approx. 43 minutes Published: Publication type:

SBU Assessment

Presents a comprehensive, systematic assessment of available scientific evidence for effects on health, social welfare or disability. Full assessments include economic, social and ethical impact analyses. Assessment teams include professional practitioners and academics. Before publication the report is reviewed by external experts, and scientific conclusions approved by the SBU Board of Directors.

Published: Report no: 281 Registration no: UTV2016/40 ISBN: 978-91-88437-23-5 https://www.sbu.se/281e

Executive Summary

Conslusions

  • Most of the diagnostic and treatment methods used in health care for epilepsy are based on scientific evidence.
  • There is strong scientific evidence that surgery is an effective treatment for a select group of people with epilepsy who are resistant to pharmac eutical treatment. Yet, surgery infre-quently applied. The estimated cost of surgery per quality-adjusted life year is low to moderate.
  • There is moderately strong scientific evidence that a ketogenic diet is an effective treatment for a select group of children with pharmacores-istant epilepsy. The estimated cost per quality adjusted life year is high; the uncertainty is high, but this estimate is uncertain.
  • More research is needed in some areas, for instance, regarding the treatment of epilepsy in certain age groups, as well as for the treatment of comorbid conditions such as epilepsy and concurrent depression, psychosis or ADHD.

To be diagnosed with epilepsy a person must have had unprovoked, and usually repeated, epileptic seizures. A seizure is epileptic if it presents in a typical manner and is the result of abnormal brain activity. Epilepsy is usually treated with medication and involves several years of contact with health care services. It is esti-mated that between 60 000 and 70 000 people have epilepsy in Sweden, and that at least 7 000 people are examined for epilepsy each year.

People with epilepsy continuously run the risk of having a sudden epileptic seizure, which often results in the loss of control and an accompanying concern that a seizure will happen at an inappropriate time. People who have epilepsy are not always aware of their seizures; they don’t know what their seizures look like, and how others around them will react. Epilepsy can have serious or even fatal consequences. Examinations are not always able to clearly identify what causes the seizures, and available treatments rarely cure, but rather reduce or take away the symptoms. Treatments are often accompanied by side effects. Decisions in the diagnosis and treatment process must be made together with that individual, and their parents or guardians, in the case of children or young people. Treatment risks should always be weighed against the potential benefits to the individual. Epilepsy affects not only the lives of the person with epilepsy, but the lives of their entire family – not in the least for children and young people with epilepsy. Many with epilepsy have other disabilities, most commonly intel-lectual disabilities. These people and their families often need social support services.

The methods that were assessed in this HTA-report, involve diagnostics, pharmaceutical treatments, sur-gical treatments and some other treatments. It was conducted in accordance with SBU’s methodology (www.sbu.se).

The full report in Swedish

The full report in Swedish Diagnos och behandling av epilepsi

Project group

Experts

  • Torbjörn Tomson (Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Sweden)
  • Roland Flink (Uppsala Universitet, Uppsala University Hospital, Sweden)
  • Lars Forsgren (Umeå University, Norrlands universitetssjukhus, Sweden)
  • Ingrid Olsson Lindberg (University of Gothenburg, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Sweden)
  • Kristina Malmgren (University of Gothenburg, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Sweden) Viviann Nordin (Karolinska Institutet, South Hospital, Sweden)

Adjunct expert adviser

  • Johan Bjellvi (Sahlgrenska University Hospital)
  • Olafur Sveinsson (Karolinska University Hospital, Sweden)

SBU

  • Sten Anttila (Project Manager)
  • Martin Eriksson (Health Economist)
  • Elisabeth Gustafsson (Project Administrator)
  • Charlotte Hall (Assistant Project Manager until September 2016)
  • Margareta Hedner (Project Coworker 2017)
  • Maja Kärrman Fredriksson (Information Specialist)
  • Laura Lintamo (Project Coworker 2016)
  • Tanja Näslund (Assistant Project Manager until January 2018)
  • Jenny Odeberg (Assistant Project Manager until September 2016)
  • Natalie Peira (Project Coworker 2017)
  • Karin Rydin (Project Coworker 2016)
  • Karin Wilbe Ramsay (Assistant Project Manager)

References

  1. Fisher RS, Acevedo C, Arzimanoglou A, Bogacz A, Cross JH, Elger CE, et al. ILAE official report: a practical clinical definition of epilepsy. Epilepsia 2014;55:475-82.
  2. Fisher RS, Cross JH, French JA, Higurashi N, Hirsch E, Jansen FE, et al. Operational classification of seizure types by the International League Against Epilepsy: Position Paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia 2017;58:522-30.
  3. Scheffer IE, Berkovic S, Capovilla G, Connolly MB, French J, Guilhoto L, et al. ILAE classification of the epilepsies: Position paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia 2017;58:512-21.
  4. Forsgren L, Beghi E, Oun A, Sillanpaa M. The epidemiology of epilepsy in Europe - a systematic review. Eur J Neurol 2005;12:245-53.
  5. Hesdorffer DC, Logroscino G, Benn EKT, Katri N, Cascino G, Hauser WA. Estimating risk for developing epilepsy. A population-based study in Rochester, Minnesota 2011;76:23-7.
  6. Perucca E, Tomson T. The pharmacol­ogical treatment of epilepsy in adults. Lancet Neurol 2011;10:446-56.
  7. Tomson T, Dahl ML, Kimland E. Therapeutic monitoring of antiepileptic drugs for epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007:CD002216.
  8. Glauser T, Ben-Menachem E, Bourgeois B, Cnaan A, Guerreiro C, Kalviainen R, et al. Updated ILAE evidence review of antiepileptic drug efficacy and effectiveness as initial monotherapy for epileptic seizures and syndromes. Epilepsia 2013;54:551-63.
  9. Läkemedelsverket. Behandlings­­rekom­men­dationer. [Citerad 2018-04-11]. Till­gänglig från https://lakemedelsverket.se/behandlingsrekommendationer
  10. Kwan P, Arzimanoglou A, Berg AT, Brodie MJ, Allen Hauser W, Mathern G, et al. Definition of drug resistant epilepsy: consensus proposal by the ad hoc Task Force of the ILAE Commission on Therapeutic Strategies. Epilepsia 2010;51:1069-77.
  11. De Giorgis V, Veggiotti P. GLUT1 deficiency syndrome 2013: current state of the art. Seizure 2013;22:803-11.
  12. Sofou K, Dahlin M, Hallbook T, Lindefeldt M, Viggedal G, Darin N. Ketogenic diet in pyruvate dehydrogenase complex deficiency: short- and long-term outcomes. J Inherit Metab Dis 2017;40:237-45.
  13. Krumholz A, Shinnar S, French J, Gronseth G, Wiebe S. Evidence-based guideline: Management of an unprovoked first seizure in adults: Report of the Guideline Development Subcom­mittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society. Neurology 2015;85:1526-7.
  14. Annegers JF, Hauser WA, Elveback LR. Remission of Seizures and Relapse in Patients with Epilepsy. Epilepsia 1979;20:729-37.
  15. Lamberink HJ, Otte WM, Geerts AT, Pavlovic M, Ramos-Lizana J, Marson AG, et al. Individualised prediction model of seizure recurrence and long-term outcomes after withdrawal of anti­epileptic drugs in seizure-free patients: a systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis. Lancet Neurol 2017;16:523-31.
  16. Medical Research Council Antiepileptic Drug Withdrawal Study G, Bessant P, Chadwick D, Eaton B, Taylor J, Holland A, et al. Randomised study of antiepileptic drug withdrawal in patients in remission. The Lancet 1991;337:1175-80.
  17. Jacoby A, Baker GA, Crossley J, Schachter S. Tools for assessing quality of life in epilepsy patients. Expert Rev Neurother 2013;13:1355-69.
  18. Thurman DJ, Logroscino G, Beghi E, Hauser WA, Hesdorffer DC, Newton CR, et al. The burden of premature mortality of epilepsy in high-income countries: A systematic review from the Mortality Task Force of the International League Against Epilepsy. Epilepsia 2017;58:17-26.
  19. Moshe SL, Perucca E, Ryvlin P, Tomson T. Epilepsy: new advances. Lancet 2015;385:884-98.
  20. Sveinsson O, Andersson T, Carlsson S, Tomson T. The incidence of SUDEP: A nationwide population-based cohort study. Neurology 2017;89:170-7.
  21. Salomon JA, Vos T, Hogan DR, Gagnon M, Naghavi M, Mokdad A, et al. Common values in assessing health outcomes from disease and injury: disability weights measurement study for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 2012;380:2129-43.
  22. Keezer MR, Sisodiya SM, Sander JW. Comorbidities of epilepsy: current concepts and future perspectives. Lancet Neurol 2016;15:106-15.
  23. Nickels KC, Zaccariello MJ, Hamiwka LD, Wirrell EC. Cognitive and neuro­developmental comorbidities in paedi­­atric epilepsy. Nat Rev Neurol 2016;12:465-76.
  24. Socialstyrelsen. Ålders- och könsför­delning av hos personer med diagnosen epilepsi i öppenvård under 2016 [internet]. Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen. [Citerad 2018-03-18]. Tillgänglig från: http://www.socialstyrelsen.se/Statistik/statistikdatabas/
  25. Svenska epilepsisällskapet. Årsrapporter epilepsikirurgi. [Citerad 2018-04-09]. Tillgänglig från: https://www.epilepsisallskapet.se/epkir
  26. Carlsson P, Anell A, Eliasson M. Hälsoekonomi får allt större roll för sjukvårdens prioriteringar. Läkartid­ningen 2006;103:3617-23.
  27. Socialstyrelsen. Bilaga 4, Metod, Nationella riktlinjer för diabetesvården 2010 – Stöd för styrning och ledning (35). Socialstyrelsen. Stockholm. 2010.
  28. King MA, Newton MR, Jackson GD, Fitt GJ, Mitchell LA, Silvapulle MJ, et al. Epileptology of the first-seizure presentation: a clinical, electroencephalo­graphic, and magnetic resonance imaging study of 300 consecutive patients. Lancet 1998;352:1007-11.
  29. Sofat P, Teter B, Kavak KS, Gupta R, Li P. Time interval providing highest yield for initial EEG in patients with new onset seizures. Epilepsy Res 2016;127:229-32.
  30. Sadleir LG, Scheffer IE. Optimizing electroencephalographic studies for epilepsy diagnosis in children with new-onset seizures. Arch Neurol 2010;67:1345-9.
  31. DeRoos ST, Chillag KL, Keeler M, Gilbert DL. Effects of sleep deprivation on the pediatric electroencephalogram. Pediatrics 2009;123:703-8.
  32. Leach JP, Stephen LJ, Salveta C, Brodie MJ. Which electroencephalo­graphy (EEG) for epilepsy? The relative usefulness of different EEG protocols in patients with possible epilepsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2006;77:1040-2.
  33. Schreiner A, Pohlmann-Eden B. Value of the early electroencephalogram after a first unprovoked seizure. Clin Electroen­cephalogr 2003;34:140-4.
  34. van Donselaar CA, Schimsheimer RJ, Geerts AT, Declerck AC. Value of the electroencephalogram in adult patients with untreated idiopathic first seizures. Arch Neurol 1992;49:231-7.
  35. Rowan AJ, Veldhuisen RJ, Nagelkerke NJ. Comparative evaluation of sleep deprivation and sedated sleep EEGs as diagnostic aids in epilepsy. Electroen­cephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1982;54:357-64.
  36. Nousiainen U, Suomalainen T, Mervaala E. Clinical benefits of scalp EEG studies in intractable seizure disorders. Acta Neurol Scand 1992;85:181-6.
  37. Dzienis W, Tarasow E, Kochanowicz J, Szulc A, Walecki J, Kubas B. Utility of computed tomography and selected MR sequences in the diagnostics of patients with partial epileptic attacks. Med Sci Monit 2007;13 Suppl 1:49-54.
  38. Nikodijevic D, Baneva-Dolnenec N, Petrovska-Cvetkovska D, Caparoska D. Refractory Epilepsy-MRI, EEG and CT scan, a Correlative Clinical Study. Open Access Maced J Med Sci 2016;4:98-101.
  39. Olszewska DA, Costello DJ. Assessment of the usefulness of magnetic resonance brain imaging in patients presenting with acute seizures. Ir J Med Sci 2014;183:621-4.
  40. Assarzadegan F, Tabesh H, Hesami O, Derakhshanfar H, Beladi Moghadam N, Shoghli A, et al. The Role of Antiepileptic Treatment in the Recurrence Rate of Seizures After First Attack: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Iran J Child Neurol 2015;9:46-52.
  41. Camfield P, Camfield C, Dooley J, Smith E, Garner B. A randomized study of carb­amazepine versus no medication after a first unprovoked seizure in childhood. Neurology 1989;39:851-2.
  42. Chandra B. First seizure in adults: to treat or not to treat. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 1992;94 Suppl:S61-3.
  43. Das CP, Sawhney IM, Lal V, Prabhakar S. Risk of recurrence of seizures following single unprovoked idiopathic seizure. Neurol India 2000;48:357-60.
  44. Gilad R, Lampl Y, Gabbay U, Eshel Y, Sarova-Pinhas I. Early treatment of a single generalized tonic-clonic seizure to prevent recurrence. Arch Neurol 1996;53:1149-52.
  45. Leone MA, Solari A, Beghi E, Group F. Treatment of the first tonic-clonic seizure does not affect long-term remission of epilepsy. Neurology 2006;67:2227-9.
  46. Marson A, Jacoby A, Johnson A, Kim L, Gamble C, Chadwick D, et al. Immediate versus deferred antiepileptic drug treatment for early epilepsy and single seizures: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005;365:2007-13.
  47. Kim LG, Johnson TL, Marson AG, Chadwick DW, group MMS. Prediction of risk of seizure recurrence after a single seizure and early epilepsy: further results from the MESS trial. Lancet Neurol 2006;5:317-22.
  48. Gebremariam A, Mengesha W, Enqusilassie F. Discontinuing anti-epileptic medication(s) in epileptic children: 18 versus 24 months. Ann Trop Paediatr 1999;19:93-9.
  49. Peters AC, Brouwer OF, Geerts AT, Arts WF, Stroink H, van Donselaar CA. Randomized prospective study of early discontinuation of antiepileptic drugs in children with epilepsy. Neurology 1998;50:724-30.
  50. Tennison M, Greenwood R, Lewis D, Thorn M. Discontinuing antiepileptic drugs in children with epilepsy. A comparison of a six-week and a nine-month taper period. N Engl J Med 1994;330:1407-10.
  51. Verrotti A, Morresi S, Basciani F, Cutarella R, Morgese G, Chiarelli F. Discontinuation of anticonvulsant therapy in children with partial epilepsy. Neurology 2000;55:1393-5.
  52. Läkemedelsverket. Läkemedels­behandling av epilepsi – ny rekom­men­­dation. [Citerad 2018-03-15]. Till­gänglig från https://lakemedelsverket.se/­upload/halso-och-sjukvard/behandlings­rekommendationer/2011_02_02_Rek%20Eilepsi-webb.pdf
  53. Froscher W, Eichelbaum M, Gugler R, Hildenbrand G, Penin H. A prospective randomised trial on the effect of monitoring plasma anticonvulsant levels in epilepsy. J Neurol 1981;224:193-201.
  54. Jannuzzi G, Cian P, Fattore C, Gatti G, Bartoli A, Monaco F, et al. A multicenter randomized controlled trial on the clinical impact of therapeutic drug monitoring in patients with newly diagnosed epilepsy. The Italian TDM Study Group in Epilepsy. Epilepsia 2000;41:222-30.
  55. Sivasankari V, Tharani CB, Gobinathan S. A clinical evaluation of therapeutic drug monitoring of phenytoin in epileptic patients in a tertiary care teaching hospital, Chennai, Tamilnadu: A randomized, open label comparative study. 2012;3:271-80.
  56. Patsalos PN, Berry DJ, Bourgeois BF, Cloyd JC, Glauser TA, Johannessen SI, et al. Antiepileptic drugs--best practice guidelines for therapeutic drug monitoring: a position paper by the subcommission on therapeutic drug monitoring, ILAE Commission on Therapeutic Strategies. Epilepsia 2008;49:1239-76.
  57. FASS. Farmaceutiska specialiteter i Sverige, FASS. [Citerad 2018-04-04]. Tillgänglig från www.FASS.se
  58. Biton V, Berkovic SF, Abou-Khalil B, Sperling MR, Johnson ME, Lu S. Brivaracetam as adjunctive treatment for uncontrolled partial epilepsy in adults: a phase III randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Epilepsia 2014;55:57-66.
  59. French JA, Costantini C, Brodsky A, von Rosenstiel P. Adjunctive brivaracetam for refractory partial-onset seizures: a randomized, controlled trial. Neurology 2010;75:519-25.
  60. Klein P, Schiemann J, Sperling MR, Whitesides J, Liang W, Stalvey T, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter, parallel-group study to evaluate the efficacy and safety of adjunctive brivaracetam in adult patients with uncontrolled partial-onset seizures. Epilepsia 2015;56:1890-8.
  61. Kwan P, Trinka E, Van Paesschen W, Rektor I, Johnson ME, Lu S. Adjunctive brivaracetam for uncontrolled focal and generalized epilepsies: results of a phase III, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, flexible-dose trial. Epilepsia 2014;55:38-46.
  62. Ryvlin P, Werhahn KJ, Blaszczyk B, Johnson ME, Lu S. Adjunctive brivaracetam in adults with uncontrolled focal epilepsy: results from a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Epilepsia 2014;55:47-56.
  63. Van Paesschen W, Hirsch E, Johnson M, Falter U, von Rosenstiel P. Efficacy and tolerability of adjunctive brivaracetam in adults with uncontrolled partial-onset seizures: a phase IIb, randomized, controlled trial. Epilepsia 2013;54:89-97.
  64. Ben-Menachem E, Gabbai AA, Hufnagel A, Maia J, Almeida L, Soares-da-Silva P. Eslicarbazepine acetate as adjunctive therapy in adult patients with partial epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 2010;89:278-85.
  65. Elger C, Bialer M, Cramer JA, Maia J, Almeida L, Soares-da-Silva P. Eslicarbazepine acetate: a double-blind, add-on, placebo-controlled exploratory trial in adult patients with partial-onset seizures. Epilepsia 2007;48:497-504.
  66. Elger C, Halasz P, Maia J, Almeida L, Soares-da-Silva P. Efficacy and safety of eslicarbazepine acetate as adjunctive treatment in adults with refractory partial-onset seizures: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group phase III study. Epilepsia 2009;50:454-63.
  67. Gil-Nagel A, Lopes-Lima J, Almeida L, Maia J, Soares-da-Silva P. Efficacy and safety of 800 and 1200 mg eslicar­bazepine acetate as adjunctive treatment in adults with refractory partial-onset seizures. Acta Neurol Scand 2009;120:281-7.
  68. Sperling MR, Harvey J, Grinnell T, Cheng H, Blum D. Efficacy and safety of conversion to monotherapy with eslicarbazepine acetate in adults with uncontrolled partial-onset seizures: a randomized historical-control phase III study based in North America. Epilepsia 2015;56:546-55.
  69. Anhut H, Ashman P, Feuerstein TJ, Sauermann W, Saunders M, Schmidt B. Gabapentin (Neurontin) as add-on therapy in patients with partial seizures: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. The International Gabapentin Study Group. Epilepsia 1994;35:795-801.
  70. Appleton RE, Peters AC, Mumford JP, Shaw DE. Randomised, placebo-controlled study of vigabatrin as first-line treatment of infantile spasms. Epilepsia 1999;40:1627-33.
  71. Sivenius J, Kalviainen R, Ylinen A, Riekkinen P. Double-blind study of Gabapentin in the treatment of partial seizures. Epilepsia 1991;32:539-42.
  72. Gabapentin as add-on therapy in refractory partial epilepsy: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study. The US Gabapentin Study Group No. 5. Neurology 1993;43:2292-8.
  73. Yamauchi T, Kaneko S, Yagi K, Sase S. Treatment of partial seizures with gabapentin: double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2006;60:507-15.
  74. Ben-Menachem E, Biton V, Jatuzis D, Abou-Khalil B, Doty P, Rudd GD. Efficacy and safety of oral lacosamide as adjunctive therapy in adults with partial-onset seizures. Epilepsia 2007;48:1308-17.
  75. Chung S, Ben-Menachem E, Sperling MR, Rosenfeld W, Fountain NB, Benbadis S, et al. Examining the clinical utility of lacosamide: pooled analyses of three phase II/III clinical trials. CNS Drugs 2010;24:1041-54.
  76. Halasz P, Kalviainen R, Mazurkiewicz-Beldzinska M, Rosenow F, Doty P, Hebert D, et al. Adjunctive lacosamide for partial-onset seizures: Efficacy and safety results from a randomized controlled trial. Epilepsia 2009;50:443-53.
  77. Hong Z, Inoue Y, Liao W, Meng H, Wang X, Wang W, et al. Efficacy and safety of adjunctive lacosamide for the treatment of partial-onset seizures in Chinese and Japanese adults: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Epilepsy Res 2016;127:267-75.
  78. Cereghino JJ, Biton V, Abou-Khalil B, Dreifuss F, Gauer LJ, Leppik I. Levetiracetam for partial seizures: results of a double-blind, randomized clinical trial. Neurology 2000;55:236-42.
  79. Glauser T, Ben-Menachem E, Bourgeois B, Cnaan A, Chadwick D, Guerreiro C, et al. ILAE treatment guidelines: evidence-based analysis of antiepileptic drug efficacy and effectiveness as initial monotherapy for epileptic seizures and syndromes. Epilepsia 2006;47:1094-120.
  80. Inoue Y, Ohtsuka Y, Ikeda H, Yoshinaga H, Kobayashi K, Tohyama J, et al. Long-term safety and efficacy of stiripentol for the treatment of Dravet syndrome: A multicenter, open-label study in Japan. Epilepsy Research 2015;113:90-7.
  81. Peltola J, Coetzee C, Jimenez F, Litovchenko T, Ramaratnam S, Zaslavaskiy L, et al. Once-daily extended-release levetiracetam as adjunctive treatment of partial-onset seizures in patients with epilepsy: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Epilepsia 2009;50:406-14.
  82. Shorvon SD, Lowenthal A, Janz D, Bielen E, Loiseau P. Multicenter double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of levetiracetam as add-on therapy in patients with refractory partial seizures. European Levetiracetam Study Group. Epilepsia 2000;41:1179-86.
  83. Tsai JJ, Yen DJ, Hsih MS, Chen SS, Hiersemenzel R, Edrich P, et al. Efficacy and safety of levetiracetam (up to 2000 mg/day) in Taiwanese patients with refractory partial seizures: a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Epilepsia 2006;47:72-81.
  84. Wu XY, Hong Z, Wu X, Wu LW, Wang XF, Zhou D, et al. Multicenter double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of levetiracetam as add-on therapy in Chinese patients with refractory partial-onset seizures. Epilepsia 2009;50:398-405.
  85. Xiao Z, Li JM, Wang XF, Xiao F, Xi ZQ, Lv Y, et al. Efficacy and safety of levetiracetam (3,000 mg/Day) as an adjunctive therapy in Chinese patients with refractory partial seizures. Eur Neurol 2009;61:233-9.
  86. Duchowny M, Pellock JM, Graf WD, Billard C, Gilman J, Casale E, et al. A placebo-controlled trial of lamotrigine add-on therapy for partial seizures in children. Lamictal Pediatric Partial Seizure Study Group. Neurology 1999;53:1724-31.
  87. Matsuo F, Bergen D, Faught E, Messenheimer JA, Dren AT, Rudd GD, et al. Placebo-controlled study of the efficacy and safety of lamotrigine in patients with partial seizures. U.S. Lamotrigine Protocol 0.5 Clinical Trial Group. Neurology 1993;43:2284-91.
  88. Naritoku DK, Warnock CR, Messenheimer JA, Borgohain R, Evers S, Guekht AB, et al. Lamotrigine extended-release as adjunctive therapy for partial seizures. Neurology 2007;69:1610-8.
  89. French J, Brandt C, Friedman D, Biton V, Knapp L, Pitman V, et al. Adjunctive use of controlled-release pregabalin in adults with treatment-resistant partial seizures: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Epilepsia 2014;55:1220-8.
  90. Glauser TA, Nigro M, Sachdeo R, Pasteris LA, Weinstein S, Abou-Khalil B, et al. Adjunctive therapy with oxcarbazepine in children with partial seizures. The Oxcarbazepine Pediatric Study Group. Neurology 2000;54:2237-44.
  91. French JA, Krauss GL, Biton V, Squillacote D, Yang H, Laurenza A, et al. Adjunctive perampanel for refractory partial-onset seizures: randomized phase III study 304. Neurology 2012;79:589-96.
  92. French JA, Krauss GL, Steinhoff BJ, Squillacote D, Yang H, Kumar D, et al. Evaluation of adjunctive perampanel in patients with refractory partial-onset seizures: results of randomized global phase III study 305. Epilepsia 2013;54:117-25.
  93. Krauss GL, Perucca E, Ben-Menachem E, Kwan P, Shih JJ, Squillacote D. Perampanel, a selective, noncompetitive ?-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor antagonist, as adjunctive therapy for refractory partial-onset seizures: Interim results from phase III, extension study 307. In: Epilepsia; 2012. p 126-34.
  94. Lagae L, Villanueva V, Meador KJ, Bagul M, Laurenza A, Kumar D, et al. Adjunctive perampanel in adolescents with inadequately controlled partial-onset seizures: A randomized study evaluating behavior, efficacy, and safety. Epilepsia 2016;57:1120–9.
  95. Beydoun A, Uthman BM, Kugler AR, Greiner MJ, Knapp LE, Garofalo EA. Safety and efficacy of two pregabalin regimens for add-on treatment of partial epilepsy. Neurology 2005;64:475-80.
  96. Elger CE, Brodie MJ, Anhut H, Lee CM, Barrett JA. Pregabalin add-on treatment in patients with partial seizures: a novel evaluation of flexible-dose and fixed-dose treatment in a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Epilepsia 2005;46:1926-36.
  97. French JA, Kugler AR, Robbins JL, Knapp LE, Garofalo EA. Dose-response trial of pregabalin adjunctive therapy in patients with partial seizures. Neurology 2003;60:1631-7.
  98. French J, Kwan P, Fakhoury T, Pitman V, DuBrava S, Knapp L, et al. Pregabalin monotherapy in patients with partial-onset seizures: a historical-controlled trial. Neurology 2014;82:590-7.
  99. Chung S. USL255 extended-release topiramate for the treatment of epilepsy. Expert Rev Neurother 2014;14:1127-37.
  100. Elterman RD, Glauser TA, Wyllie E, Reife R, Wu SC, Pledger G. A double-blind, randomized trial of topiramate as adjunctive therapy for partial-onset seizures in children. Topiramate YP Study Group. Neurology 1999;52:1338-44.
  101. Faught E, Wilder BJ, Ramsay RE, Reife RA, Kramer LD, Pledger GW, et al. Topiramate placebo-controlled dose-ranging trial in refractory partial epilepsy using 200-, 400-, and 600-mg daily dosages. Topiramate YD Study Group. Neurology 1996;46:1684-90.
  102. Guberman A, Neto W, Gassmann-Mayer C. Low-dose topiramate in adults with treatment-resistant partial-onset seizures. Acta Neurol Scand 2002;106:183-9.
  103. Topiramate in medically intractable partial epilepsies: double-blind placebo-controlled randomized parallel group trial. Korean Topiramate Study Group. Epilepsia 1999;40:1767-74.
  104. Privitera M, Fincham R, Penry J, Reife R, Kramer L, Pledger G, et al. Topiramate placebo-controlled dose-ranging trial in refractory partial epilepsy using 600-, 800-, and 1,000-mg daily dosages. Topiramate YE Study Group. Neurology 1996;46:1678-83.
  105. Sharief M, Viteri C, Ben-Menachem E, Weber M, Reife R, Pledger G, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of topiramate in patients with refractory partial epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 1996;25:217-24.
  106. Tassinari CA, Michelucci R, Chauvel P, Chodkiewicz J, Shorvon S, Henriksen O, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of topiramate (600 mg daily) for the treatment of refractory partial epilepsy. Epilepsia 1996;37:763-8.
  107. Yen DJ, Yu HY, Guo YC, Chen C, Yiu CH, Su MS. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of topiramate in adult patients with refractory partial epilepsy. Epilepsia 2000;41:1162-6.
  108. Zhang L, Huang J, Zhuang JH, Huang LQ, Zhao ZX. Topiramate as an adjunctive treatment for refractory partial epilepsy in the elderly. J Int Med Res 2011;39:408-15.
  109. Ben-Menachem E, Henriksen O, Dam M, Mikkelsen M, Schmidt D, Reid S, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of topiramate as add-on therapy in patients with refractory partial seizures. Epilepsia 1996;37:539-43.
  110. Bruni J, Guberman A, Vachon L, Desforges C. Vigabatrin as add-on therapy for adult complex partial seizures: a double-blind, placebo-controlled multi­centre study. The Canadian Vigabatrin Study Group. Seizure 2000;9:224-32.
  111. Dean C, Mosier M, Penry K. Dose-Response Study of Vigabatrin as add-on therapy in patients with uncontrolled complex partial seizures. Epilepsia 1999;40:74-82.
  112. French JA, Mosier M, Walker S, Sommerville K, Sussman N. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of vigabatrin three g/day in patients with uncontrolled complex partial seizures. Vigabatrin Protocol 024 Investigative Cohort. Neurology 1996;46:54-61.
  113. Grunewald RA, Thompson PJ, Corcoran R, Corden Z, Jackson GD, Duncan JS. Effects of vigabatrin on partial seizures and cognitive function. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994;57:1057-63.
  114. Brodie MJ, Duncan R, Vespignani H, Solyom A, Bitenskyy V, Lucas C. Dose-dependent safety and efficacy of zonisamide: a randomized, double-­blind, placebo-controlled study in patients with refractory partial seizures. Epilepsia 2005;46:31-41.
  115. Faught E, Ayala R, Montouris GG, Leppik IE. Randomized controlled trial of zonisamide for the treatment of refractory partial-onset seizures. Neurology 2001;57:1774-9.
  116. Guerrini R, Rosati A, Segieth J, Pellacani S, Bradshaw K, Giorgi L. A randomized phase III trial of adjunctive zonisamide in pediatric patients with partial epilepsy. Epilepsia 2013;54:1473-80.
  117. Lu Y, Xiao Z, Yu W, Xiao F, Xiao Z, Hu Y, et al. Efficacy and safety of adjunctive zonisamide in adult patients with refractory partial-onset epilepsy: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Clin Drug Investig 2011;31:221-9.
  118. Sackellares JC, Ramsay RE, Wilder BJ, Browne TR, 3rd, Shellenberger MK. Randomized, controlled clinical trial of zonisamide as adjunctive treatment for refractory partial seizures. Epilepsia 2004;45:610-7.
  119. Schmidt D, Jacob R, Loiseau P, Deisenhammer E, Klinger D, Despland A, et al. Zonisamide for add-on treatment of refractory partial epilepsy: a European double-blind trial. Epilepsy Res 1993;15:67-73.
  120. Rheims S, Perucca E, Cucherat M, Ryvlin P. Factors determining response to antiepileptic drugs in randomized controlled trials. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Epilepsia 2011;52:219-33.
  121. Berkovic SF, Knowlton RC, Leroy RF, Schiemann J, Falter U. Placebo-controlled study of levetiracetam in idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Neurology 2007;69:1751-60.
  122. Biton V, Montouris GD, Ritter F, Riviello JJ, Reife R, Lim P, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled study of topiramate in primary generalized tonic-clonic seizures. Topiramate YTC Study Group. Neurology 1999;52:1330-7.
  123. Biton V, Sackellares JC, Vuong A, Hammer AE, Barrett PS, Messenheimer JA. Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of lamotrigine in primary general­ized tonic-clonic seizures. Neurology 2005;65:1737-43.
  124. Biton V, Di Memmo J, Shukla R, Lee YY, Poverennova I, Demchenko V, et al. Adjunctive lamotrigine XR for primary generalized tonic-clonic seizures in a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Epilepsy Behav 2010;19:352-8.
  125. French JA, Krauss GL, Wechsler RT, Wang XF, DiVentura B, Brandt C, et al. Perampanel for tonic-clonic seizures in idiopathic generalized epilepsy A randomized trial. Neurology 2015;85:950-7.
  126. Ashrafi MR, Khosroshahi N, Karimi P, Malamiri RA, Bavarian B, Zarch AV, et al. Efficacy and usability of buccal midazolam in controlling acute prolonged convulsive seizures in children. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2010;14:434-8.
  127. Baysun S, Aydin OF, Atmaca E, Gurer YK. A comparison of buccal midazolam and rectal diazepam for the acute treatment of seizures. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2005;44:771-6.
  128. McIntyre J, Robertson S, Norris E, Appleton R, Whitehouse WP, Phillips B, et al. Safety and efficacy of buccal midazolam versus rectal diazepam for emergency treatment of seizures in children: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005;366:205-10.
  129. Mpimbaza A, Ndeezi G, Staedke S, Rosenthal PJ, Byarugaba J. Comparison of buccal midazolam with rectal diazepam in the treatment of prolonged seizures in Ugandan children: a randomized clinical trial. Pediatrics 2008;121:e58-64.
  130. Scott RC, Besag FM, Neville BG. Buccal midazolam and rectal diazepam for treatment of prolonged seizures in childhood and adolescence: a randomised trial. Lancet 1999;353:623-6.
  131. Besag F, Gobbi G, Aldenkamp A, Caplan R, Dunn DW, Sillanpaa M. Psychiatric and Behavioural Disorders in Children with Epilepsy (ILAE Task Force Report): Subtle behavioural and cognitive manifestations of epilepsy in children. Epileptic Disord 2016:49-54.
  132. Bowley C, Kerr M. Epilepsy and intellectual disability. J Intellect Disabil Res 2000;44 ( Pt 5):529-43.
  133. Sundelin HE, Larsson H, Lichtenstein P, Almqvist C, Hultman CM, Tomson T, et al. Autism and epilepsy: A population-based nationwide cohort study. Neurology 2016;87:192-7.
  134. Amiet C, Gourfinkel-An I, Bouzamondo A, Tordjman S, Baulac M, Lechat P, et al. Epilepsy in autism is associated with intellectual disability and gender: evidence from a meta-analysis. Biol Psychiatry 2008;64:577-82.
  135. Steffenburg S, Gillberg C, Steffenburg U. Psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents with mental retardation and active epilepsy. Archives of Neurology 1996;53:904-12.
  136. Scott RC, Tuchman R. Epilepsy and autism spectrum disorders: Relatively related. Neurology 2016;87:130-1.
  137. Spina E, Leon J. Potentially Clinically Relevant Pharmacodynamic Interactions Between Antiepileptic Drugs and Psychotropic Drugs: An Update. Curr Pharm Des 2017;23:5625-38.
  138. Dunn DW, Besag F, Caplan R, Aldenkamp A, Gobbi G, Sillanpaa M. Psychiatric and Behavioural Disorders in Children with Epilepsy (ILAE Task Force Report): Anxiety, depression and childhood epilepsy. Epileptic Disord 2016;19 (Suppl 1):24-30.
  139. Reilly C, Atkinson P, Das KB, Chin RF, Aylett SE, Burch V, et al. Neurobehavioral comorbidities in children with active epilepsy: a population-based study. Pediatrics 2014;133:e1586-93.
  140. Hovorka J, Herman E, Nemcova II. Treatment of Interictal Depression with Citalopram in Patients with Epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2000;1:444-7.
  141. Thome-Souza MS, Kuczynski E, Valente KD. Sertraline and fluoxetine: safe treatments for children and adolescents with epilepsy and depression. Epilepsy Behav 2007;10:417-25.
  142. Besag F, Gobbi G, Caplan R, Sillanpaa M, Aldenkamp A, Dunn DW. Psychiatric and Behavioural Disorders in Children with Epilepsy (ILAE Task Force Report): Epilepsy and ADHD. Epileptic Disord 2016;18 (suppl. 1):8-15.
  143. Cohen R, Senecky Y, Shuper A, Inbar D, Chodick G, Shalev V, et al. Prevalence of epilepsy and attention-deficit hyperactivity (ADHD) disorder: a population-based study. J Child Neurol 2013;28:120-3.
  144. Kanner AM, Kozak AM, Frey M. The Use of Sertraline in Patients with Epilepsy: Is It Safe? Epilepsy Behav 2000;1:100-5.
  145. Ribot R, Ouyang B, Kanner AM. The impact of antidepressants on seizure frequency and depressive and anxiety disorders of patients with epilepsy: Is it worth investigating? Epilepsy Behav 2017;70:5-9.
  146. Specchio LM, Iudice A, Specchio N, La Neve A, Spinelli A, Galli R, et al. Citalopram as treatment of depression in patients with epilepsy. Clin Neuropharmacol 2004;27:133-6.
  147. Robertson MM, Trimble MR. The treatment of depression in patients with epilepsy. A double-blind trial. J Affect Disord 1985;9:127-36.
  148. Okazaki M, Adachi N, Ito M, Watanabe M, Watanabe Y, Kato M, et al. One-year seizure prognosis in epilepsy patients treated with antidepressants. Epilepsy Behav 2011;22:331-5.
  149. Alper K, Schwartz KA, Kolts RL, Khan A. Seizure incidence in psychopharmac­ological clinical trials: an analysis of Food and Drug Administration (FDA) summary basis of approval reports. Biol Psychiatry 2007;62:345-54.
  150. Clancy MJ, Clarke MC, Connor DJ, Cannon M, Cotter DR. The prevalence of psychosis in epilepsy; a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry 2014;14:75.
  151. Gonzalez-Heydrich J, Pandina GJ, Fleisher CA, Hsin O, Raches D, Bourgeois BF, et al. No seizure exacer­bation from risperidone in youth with comorbid epilepsy and psychiatric disorders: a case series. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2004;14:295-310.
  152. Okazaki M, Adachi N, Akanuma N, Hara K, Ito M, Kato M, et al. Do antipsychotic drugs increase seizure frequency in epilepsy patients? Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2014;24:1738-44.
  153. Feldman H, Crumrine P, Handen BL, Alvin R, Teodori J. Methylphenidate in children with seizures and attention-deficit disorder. Am J Dis Child 1989;143:1081-6.
  154. Gonzalez-Heydrich J, Whitney J, Waber D, Forbes P, Hsin O, Faraone SV, et al. Adaptive phase I study of OROS methylphenidate treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2010;18:229-37.
  155. Koneski JA, Casella EB, Agertt F, Ferreira MG. Efficacy and safety of methylphenidate in treating ADHD symptoms in children and adolescents with uncontrolled seizures: a Brazilian sample study and literature review. Epilepsy Behav 2011;21:228-32.
  156. Adams J, Alipio-Jocson V, Inoyama K, Bartlett V, Sandhu S, Oso J, et al. Methylphenidate, cognition, and epilepsy: A 1-month open-label trial. Epilepsia 2017;58:2124-32.
  157. Gross-Tsur V, Manor O, van der Meere J, Joseph A, Shalev RS. Epilepsy and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: is methylphenidate safe and effective? J Pediatr 1997;130:40-4.
  158. Dwivedi R, Ramanujam B, Chandra PS, Sapra S, Gulati S, Kalaivani M, et al. Surgery for Drug-Resistant Epilepsy in Children. N Engl J Med 2017;377:1639-47.
  159. Engel J, McDermott MP, Wiebe S, Langfitt JT, Stern JM, Dewar S, et al. Early surgical therapy for drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy: a randomized trial. JAMA 2012;307:922-30.
  160. Wiebe S, Blume WT, Girvin JP, Eliasziw M, Effectiveness, Efficiency of Surgery for Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Study G. A randomized, controlled trial of surgery for temporal-lobe epilepsy. N Engl J Med 2001;345:311-8.
  161. Markand ON, Salanova V, Whelihan E, Emsley CL. Health-related quality of life outcome in medically refractory epilepsy treated with anterior temporal lobectomy. Epilepsia 2000;41:749-59.
  162. Mikati MA, Rahi AC, Shamseddine A, Mroueh S, Shoeib H, Comair Y. Marked benefits in physical activity and well-being, but not in functioning domains, 2 years after successful epilepsy surgery in children. Epilepsy Behav 2008;12:145-9.
  163. Reuber M, Andersen B, Elger CE, Helmstaedter C. Depression and anxiety before and after temporal lobe epilepsy surgery. Seizure 2004;13:129-35.
  164. Picot MC, Jaussent A, Neveu D, Kahane P, Crespel A, Gelisse P, et al. Cost-effectiveness analysis of epilepsy surgery in a controlled cohort of adult patients with intractable partial epilepsy: A 5-year follow-up study. Epilepsia 2016;57:1669-79.
  165. Taft C, Sager Magnusson E, Ekstedt G, Malmgren K. Health-related quality of life, mood, and patient satisfaction after epilepsy surgery in Sweden--a prospective controlled observational study. Epilepsia 2014;55:878-85.
  166. SNESUR. Svenska Nationella epilepsi­kirurgiregistret. [Citerad 2018-04-09]. Tillgänglig från https://www.epilepsi­sallskapet.se/static/uploads/ep-kir-2014.pdf
  167. Edelvik A, Rydenhag B, Olsson I, Flink R, Kumlien E, Kallen K, et al. Long-term outcomes of epilepsy surgery in Sweden: a national prospective and longitudinal study. Neurology 2013;81:1244-51.
  168. Bjornaes H, Stabell KE, Heminghyt E, Roste GK, Bakke SJ. Resective surgery for intractable focal epilepsy in patients with low IQ: predic­tors for seizure control and outcome with respect to seizures and neuropsychological and psychosocial functioning. Epilepsia 2004;45:131-9.
  169. Dalmagro CL, Bianchin MM, Velasco TR, Alexandre V, Jr., Walz R, Terra-Bustamante VC, et al. Clinical features of patients with posterior cortex epilepsies and predictors of surgical outcome. Epilepsia 2005;46:1442-9.
  170. Elsharkawy AE, Pannek H, Schulz R, Hoppe M, Pahs G, Gyimesi C, et al. Outcome of extratemporal epilepsy surgery experience of a single center. Neurosurgery 2008;63:516-25; discussion 525-6.
  171. Hennessy MJ, Elwes RD, Honavar M, Rabe-Hesketh S, Binnie CD, Polkey CE. Predictors of outcome and pathological considerations in the surgical treatment of intractable epilepsy associated with temporal lobe lesions. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2001;70:450-8.
  172. Janszky J, Janszky I, Schulz R, Hoppe M, Behne F, Pannek HW, et al. Temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis: predictors for long-term surgical outcome. Brain 2005;128:395-404.
  173. Liava A, Mai R, Cardinale F, Tassi L, Casaceli G, Gozzo F, et al. Epilepsy surgery in the posterior part of the brain. Epilepsy Behav 2016;64:273-82.
  174. Luyken C, Blumcke I, Fimmers R, Urbach H, Elger CE, Wiestler OD, et al. The spectrum of long-term epi­lepsy-associated tumors: long-term seizure and tumor outcome and neurosurgical aspects. Epilepsia 2003;44:822-30.
  175. McIntosh AM, Kalnins RM, Mitchell LA, Fabinyi GC, Briellmann RS, Berkovic SF. Temporal lobectomy: long-term seizure outcome, late recurrence and risks for seizure recurrence. Brain 2004;127:2018-30.
  176. Patra S, Elisevich K, Podell K, Schultz L, Gaddam S, Smith B, et al. Influence of age and location of ictal onset on postoperative out­come in patients with localization-related epilepsy. Br J Neurosurg 2014;28:61-7.
  177. Pelliccia V, Deleo F, Gozzo F, Sartori I, Mai R, Cossu M, et al. Early and late epilepsy surgery in focal epilepsies associated with long-term epilepsy-associated tumors. J Neurosurg 2017;127:1147-52.
  178. Ramantani G, Kadish NE, Mayer H, Anastasopoulos C, Wagner K, Reuner G, et al. Frontal Lobe Epilepsy Surgery in Childhood and Adolescence: Predictors of Long-Term Seizure Freedom, Overall Cognitive and Adaptive Functioning. Neurosurgery 2017.
  179. Ramantani G, Stathi A, Brandt A, Strobl K, Schubert-Bast S, Wiegand G, et al. Posterior cortex epilepsy surgery in childhood and adolescence: Predictors of long-term seizure outcome. Epilepsia 2017;58:412-9.
  180. Rydenhag B, Flink R, Malmgren K. Surgical outcomes in patients with epileptogenic tumours and cavernomas in Sweden: good seizure control but late referrals. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2013;84:49-53.
  181. Simasathien T, Vadera S, Najm I, Gupta A, Bingaman W, Jehi L. Improved outcomes with earlier surgery for intractable frontal lobe epilepsy. Ann Neurol 2013;73:646-54.
  182. Kanner AM, Byrne R, Chicharro A, Wuu J, Frey M. A lifetime psychiatric history predicts a worse seizure outcome following temporal lobectomy. Neurology 2009;72:793-9.
  183. Radhakrishnan A, Abraham M, Vilanilam G, Menon R, Menon D, Kumar H, et al. Surgery for “Long-term epilepsy associated tumors (LEATs)”: Seizure outcome and its predictors. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2016;141:98-105.
  184. Salanova V, Markand O, Worth R. Temporal lobe epilepsy surgery: outcome, complications, and late mortality rate in 215 patients. Epilepsia 2002;43:170-4.
  185. Schramm J, Kuczaty S, Sassen R, Elger CE, von Lehe M. Pediatric func­tional hemispherectomy: outcome in 92 patients. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2012;154:2017-28.
  186. Asadi-Pooya AA, Nei M, Sharan A, Sperling MR. Historical Risk Factors Associated with Seizure Outcome After Surgery for Drug-Resistant Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy. World Neurosurg 2016;89:78-83.
  187. Stavem K, Bjornaes H, Langmoen IA. Predictors of seizure outcome after temp­oral lobectomy for intractable epilepsy. Acta Neurol Scand 2004;109:244-9.
  188. Fauser S, Bast T, Altenmuller DM, Schulte-Monting J, Strobl K, Steinhoff BJ, et al. Factors influencing surgical outcome in patients with focal cortical dysplasia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2008;79:103-5.
  189. Sun Z, Zuo H, Yuan D, Sun Y, Zhang K, Cui Z, et al. Predictors of prognosis in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy after anterior temporal lobectomy. Exp Ther Med 2015;10:1896-902.
  190. Freeman JM, Vining EP, Pillas DJ, Pyzik PL, Casey JC, Kelly LM. The efficacy of the ketogenic diet-1998: a prospective evaluation of intervention in 150 children. Pediatrics 1998;102:1358-63.
  191. Hemingway C, Freeman JM, Pillas DJ, Pyzik PL. The ketogenic diet: a 3- to 6-year follow-up of 150 children enrolled prospectively. Pediatrics 2001;108:898-905.
  192. Kossoff EH, Rowley H, Sinha SR, Vining EP. A prospective study of the modified Atkins diet for intractable epilepsy in adults. Epilepsia 2008;49:316-9.
  193. Smith M, Politzer N, Macgarvie D, McAndrews MP, Del Campo M. Efficacy and tolerability of the modified Atkins diet in adults with pharmacoresistant epilepsy: a prospective observational study. Epilepsia 2011;52:775-80.
  194. Lambrechts DA, de Kinderen RJ, Vles JS, de Louw AJ, Aldenkamp AP, Majoie HJ. A randomized controlled trial of the ketogenic diet in refractory childhood epilepsy. Acta Neurol Scand 2017;135:231-9.
  195. Neal EG, Chaffe H, Schwartz RH, Lawson MS, Edwards N, Fitzsimmons G, et al. The ketogenic diet for the treatment of childhood epilepsy: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 2008;7:500-6.
  196. Sharma S, Goel S, Jain P, Agarwala A, Aneja S. Evaluation of a simplified modified Atkins diet for use by parents with low levels of literacy in children with refractory epilepsy: A randomized controlled trial. Epilepsy Res 2016;127:152-9.
  197. Sharma S, Sankhyan N, Gulati S, Agarwala A. Use of the modified Atkins diet for treatment of refractory childhood epilepsy: a randomized controlled trial. Epilepsia 2013;54:481-6.
  198. Zare M, Okhovat AA, Esmaillzadeh A, Mehvari J, Najafi MR, Saadatnia M. Modified Atkins diet in adult with refractory epilepsy: A controlled randomized clinical trial. Iran J Neurol 2017;16:72-7.
  199. Hallbook T, Sjolander A, Amark P, Miranda M, Bjurulf B, Dahlin M. Effectiveness of the ketogenic diet used to treat resistant childhood epilepsy in Scandinavia. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2015;19:29-36.
  200. Neal EG, Chaffe H, Schwartz RH, Lawson MS, Edwards N, Fitzsimmons G, et al. A randomized trial of classical and medium-chain triglyceride ketogenic diets in the treatment of childhood epilepsy. Epilepsia 2009;50:1109-17.
  201. Handforth A, DeGiorgio CM, Schachter SC, Uthman BM, Naritoku DK, Tecoma ES, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation therapy for partial-onset seizures: a randomized active-control trial. Neurology 1998;51:48-55.
  202. Klinkenberg S, Aalbers MW, Vles JS, Cornips EM, Rijkers K, Leenen L, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in children with intractable epilepsy: a randomized controlled trial. Dev Med Child Neurol 2012;54:855-61.
  203. The Vagus Nerve Stimulation Study Group. A randomized controlled trial of chronic vagus nerve stimulation for treatment of medically intractable seizures. Neurology 1995;45:224-30.
  204. Kalanithi PS, Arrigo RT, Tran P, Gephart MH, Shuer L, Fisher R, et al. Rehospitalization and emergency department use rates before and after vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy: use of state databases to provide longitudinal data across multiple clinical settings. Neuromodulation 2014;17:60-4; discussion 64-5.
  205. Arcand J, Waterhouse K, Hernandez-Ronquillo L, Vitali A, Tellez-Zenteno JF. Efficacy of Vagal Nerve Stimulation for Drug-Resistant Epilepsy: Is it the Stimulation or Medication? Can J Neurol Sci 2017;44:532-7.
  206. Amar AP, DeGiorgio CM, Tarver WB, Apuzzo ML. Long-term multicenter experience with vagus nerve stimulation for intractable partial seizures: results of the XE5 trial. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 1999;73:104-8.
  207. Cukiert A, Cukiert CM, Burattini JA, Lima AM, Forster CR, Baise C, et al. A prospective long-term study on the outcome after vagus nerve stimulation at maximally tolerated current intensity in a cohort of children with refractory secondary generalized epilepsy. Neuromodulation 2013;16:551-6; discussion 556.
  208. Fisher R, Salanova V, Witt T, Worth R, Henry T, Gross R, et al. Electrical stimulation of the anterior nucleus of thalamus for treatment of refractory epilepsy. Epilepsia 2010;51:899-908.
  209. Sprengers M, Vonck K, Carrette E, Marson AG, Boon P. Deep brain and cortical stimulation for epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014:CD008497.
  210. Salanova V, Witt T, Worth R, Henry TR, Gross RE, Nazzaro JM, et al. Long-term efficacy and safety of thalamic stimulation for drug-resistant partial epilepsy. Neurology 2015;84:1017-25.
  211. SBU. Utvärdering av metoder i hälso- och sjukvården och insatser i social­tjänsten. [Citerad 2018-03-28]. Tillgänglig från https://www.sbu.se/metodbok
  212. SBU. SBU:s miniordlista. [Citerad 2018-03-27]. Tillgänglig från https://www.sbu.se/
  213. Brigo F, Igwe SC, Bragazzi NL. Antiepileptic drugs for the treatment of infants with severe myoclonic epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2017;5:CD010483.
  214. SCB. Inkomst av tjänst 2017. [Citerad 2018-03-27]. Tillgänglig från www.scb.se
  215. Trafikverket. Analysmetod och samhällsekonomiska kalkylvärden för transportsektorn, ASEK. N. [Citerad 2018-02-15]. Tillgänglig från https://www.trafikverket.se/for-dig-i-branschen/Planera-och-utreda/Planerings--och-analysmetoder/Samhallsekonomisk-analys-och-trafikanalys/analysmetod-och-samhallsekonomiska-kalkylvarden-for-transportsektorn-asek/
  216. Burch J, Hinde S, Palmer S, Beyer F, Minton J, Marson A, et al. The clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of technologies used to visualise the seizure focus in people with refractory epilepsy being considered for surgery: a systematic review and decision-analytical model. Health Technol Assess 2012;16:1-157, iii-iv.
  217. Hinde S, Soares M, Burch J, Marson A, Woolacott N, Palmer S. The added clinical and economic value of diagnostic testing for epilepsy surgery. Epilepsy Res 2014;108:775-81.
  218. Bowen JM, Snead OC, Chandra K, Blackhouse G, Goeree R. Epilepsy care in ontario: an economic analysis of increasing access to epilepsy surgery. Ont Health Technol Assess Ser 2012;12:1-41.
  219. Bowen JM, Health MUPfAoTi. Diagnostic Evaluation of Infants, Children and Adolescents with Epilepsy for Surgery Candidacy and the Role of Magnetoence­phalography (MEG), Programs for Assessment of Technology in Health (PATH) Research Institute; 2012
  220. Choi H, Sell RL, Lenert L, Muennig P, Goodman RR, Gilliam FG, et al. Epilepsy surgery for pharmacoresistant temporal lobe epilepsy: a decision analysis. JAMA 2008;300:2497-505.
  221. Malmgren K, Edelvik A. Long-term outcomes of surgical treatment for epi­lepsy in adults with regard to seizures, antiepileptic drug treatment and employ­ment. Seizure 2017;44:217-24.
  222. Edelvik A, Taft C, Ekstedt G, Malmgren K. Health-related quality of life and emotional well-being after epilepsy surgery: A prospective, controlled, long-term follow-up. Epilepsia 2017;58:1706-15.
  223. Selai C, Kaiser S, Trimble M, Price M. PNP15 Evaluation of the relationship between epilepsy severity and utility. Value in Health; 5:512-3.
  224. Bjellvi J, Flink R, Rydenhag B, Malmgren K. Complications of epi­lepsy surgery in Sweden 1996-2010: a prospective, population-based study. J Neurosurg 2015;122:519-25.
  225. Rydenhag B, Silander HC. Complications of epilepsy surgery after 654 procedures in Sweden, September 1990-1995: a multicenter study based on the Swedish National Epilepsy Surgery Register. Neuro­surgery 2001;49:51-6; discussion 56-7.
  226. Edelvik A, Flink R, Malmgren K. Prospective and longitudinal long-term employment outcomes after resective epilepsy surgery. Neurology 2015;85:1482-90.
  227. de Kinderen RJ, Postulart D, Aldenkamp AP, Evers SM, Lambrechts DA, Louw AJ, et al. Cost-effectiveness of the ketogenic diet and vagus nerve stimulation for the treatment of children with intractable epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 2015;110:119-31.
  228. Wijnen BFM, de Kinderen RJA, Lambrechts D, Postulart D, Aldenkamp AP, Majoie M, et al. Long-term clinical outcomes and economic evaluation of the ketogenic diet versus care as usual in children and adolescents with intractable epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 2017;132:91-9.
  229. Messori A, Trippoli S, Becagli P, Cincotta M, Labbate MG, Zaccara G. Adjunctive lamotrigine therapy in patients with refractory seizures: a lifetime cost-utility analysis. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1998;53:421-7.
  230. Sharma S, Jain P, Gulati S, Sankhyan N, Agarwala A. Use of the modified Atkins diet in Lennox Gastaut syndrome. J Child Neurol 2015;30:576-9.
  231. de Kinderen RJ, Lambrechts DA, Wijnen BF, Postulart D, Aldenkamp AP, Majoie MH, et al. An economic evaluation of the ketogenic diet versus care as usual in children and adolescents with intractable epilepsy: An interim analysis. Epilepsia 2016;57:41-50.
  232. Sveriges Riksdag. Prioriteringar inom hälso- och sjukvården. [Citerad 2018-04-23]. Tillgänglig från:Till­gänglig från https://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-lagar/dokument/proposition/prioriteringar-inom-halso--och-sjukvarden_GK0360
  233. Socialstyrelsen. Nationella riktlinjer för vård vid epilepsi. Remissversion. [Citerad 2018-04-04]. Tillgäng­liga från http://www.socialstyrelsen.se/riktlinjer/nationellariktlinjer/epilepsi
  234. Leone MA, Giussani G, Nolan SJ, Marson AG, Beghi E. Immediate anti­epileptic drug treatment, versus placebo, deferred, or no treatment for first unprovoked seizure. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016:CD007144.
  235. Strozzi I, Nolan SJ, Sperling MR, Wingerchuk DM, Sirven J. Early versus late antiepileptic drug with­-drawal for people with epilepsy in remission. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015:CD001902.
  236. Ryvlin P, Cucherat M, Rheims S. Risk of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy in patients given adjunctive antiepileptic treatment for refractory seizures: a meta-analysis of placebo-controlled randomised trials. Lancet Neurol 2011;10:961-8.
  237. American Academy of Neurology, AAN, guidelines. [Citerad 2018-04-04]. Tillgänglig från: https://www.aan.com/Guidelines/home/ByTopic?topicId=23
  238. AES guidelines. [citerad 2018-04-04]. Tillgänglig från: https://www.aesnet.org/clinical_resources/guidelines
  239. French JA, Kanner AM, Bautista J, Abou-Khalil B, Browne T, Harden CL, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of the new antiepileptic drugs II: treatment of refractory epilepsy: report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee and Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society. Neurology 2004;62:1261-73.
  240. NICE Guidelines. [Citerad 2018-04-04]. Tillgänglig från https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/conditions-and-diseases/neurologicalconditions/epilepsy#pathways
  241. Tomson T. Mortality after epilepsy surgery. In: Malmgren K, Baxendale S, Cross H, editors. Long-term outcomes of Epilepsy Surgery in Adults and Children Springer 2015. p 125-133.
  242. Sperling MR, Barshow S, Nei M, Asadi-Pooya AA. A reappraisal of mortality after epilepsy surgery. Neurology 2016;86:1938-44.
  243. Bowen JM. Diagnostic Evaluation of Infants, Children and Adolescents with Epilepsy for Surgery Candidacy and the Role of Magnetoencephalography (MEG), Programs for Assessment of Technology in Health (PATH) Research Institute; 2012
  244. West S, Nolan SJ, Cotton J, Gandhi S, Weston J, Sudan A, et al. Surgery for epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015:CD010541.
  245. Panebianco M, Zavanone C, Dupont S, Restivo DA, Pavone A. Vagus nerve stimulation therapy in partial epilepsy: a review. Acta Neurol Belg 2016;116:241-8.
  246. Sprengers M, Vonck K, Carrette E, Marson AG, Boon P. Deep brain and cortical stimulation for epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2017;7:CD008497.
  247. Martin K, Jackson CF, Levy RG, Cooper PN. Ketogenic diet and other dietary treatments for epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016;2:CD001903.
  248. McTague A, Martland T, Appleton R. Drug management for acute tonic-clonic convulsions including convulsive status epilepticus in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018;1:CD001905.
  249. Maguire MJ, Weston J, Singh J, Marson AG. Antidepressants for people with epilepsy and depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014:Cd010682.
  250. Farooq S, Sherin A. Interventions for psychotic symptoms concomitant with epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015:Cd006118.
  251. Gabapentin in partial epilepsy. UK Gabapentin study group. Lancet. 1990 May 12; 335(8898):1114-7.

More on the subject

Scientific Article

Bjellvi J, Olsson I, Malmgren K, Wilbe Ramsay K. Epilepsy duration and seizure outcome in epilepsy surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurology. 2019;93(2):e159-e66. Open Access

Page published